3 Learning Theories Integrating with ICT

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3 Learning Theories Integrating with ICT

There are three major theories of learning; Behaviorism, Constructivism, and Cognitivism. These views have heavily influenced the development of educational software.

1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance. Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus.

For example when presented a speaking skill with a power point media showing “a picture of red apple”, the learners reply with the answer “A red Apple”. The picture is stimulus and the proper answer “a red apple” is associated response. The key elements are stimulus, the response and the associated between the two.

Behaviorism focuses on the importance of consequences of those performances and contends that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future. No attempt is made to determine the structure of student’s knowledge or to access which mental processes it is necessary for them to use (Winn, 1990). The learner is characterized as being reactive to condition in the environment as opposed to taking an active role in discovering the environment.

Many of the basic assumptions and characteristic of behaviorism are embedded in current instructional design practices. Behaviorism was used as the basis for designing many of the early audio-visual materials and gives rise to many related teaching strategies, such as Skinner’s teaching machine and programmed text. More recent examples include principles utilized within computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and mastery learning.

Behavioral theories imply that the job of the teacher is to:

a. Determine which cues and elicit the desired responses

b. Arrange practice situations in which prompts are paired with the target stimuli that initially have no eliciting power but which will be expected to elicit the responses in the “natural” (performance) setting, and

c. Arrange environmental conditions so that students can make the correct responses in the presence of those target stimuli and receive reinforcement for those responses (Gropper, 1987)

The work of the American Psychologist B. F. Skinner has had the most influence. Skinner believed that people can learn more effectively if their environment is carefully controlled. He developed the principles of operant (behavior) conditioning which basically stated that:

If the occurrence of an operant is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, the strength is increased. (Skinner, 1938)

2. Constructivism

According to the constructivism model, knowledge is constructed by the learner by drawing on prior knowledge and personal experience. It finds its diametric opposite in the objectivist epistemology according to which knowledge is external to the learner and is imposed upon him or her and then replicated under controlled condition (ALLADIN, 2001).

It is the process, not the product, which is crucial to the learner’s construction of knowledge; the way in which the learner arrives at the solution is of more important than the solution itself.

The process requires the active use of a wide variety of materials to support the learning process, e.g. raw data, secondary sources, interactive materials.

Real tasks, including case studies and problem-based learning methods, are used to anchor the learning process in realistic contexts.

Rather than being simply spoonfed ‘answers’ by the teacher, the learner is prompted to relate concepts to pre-existing knowledge and experience in order that new ideas become meaningful in the learner’s own frames of reference (Jonassen et al, 1999).

“Learning is active mental work, not passive reception of teaching.” (Woolfolk, 1993: 485)

ICT and Constructivism

Using ICT the teacher plays the role of task designer and knowledge facilitator. The teacher creates the learning environment in such a way as to enable the acquisition of new knowledge.

“From a constructivist perspective, the primary responsibility of the teacher is to create and maintain a collaborative, problem-solving environment, where students are allowed to construct their own knowledge, and the teacher acts as facilitator and guide.” (Tam, 2000: 53)

3. Cognitivism

This focuses more on more complex cognitive processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing.

It seems to be about equipping learners with effective learning strategies to process the information that they are given – as well as factoring in the students own beliefs and thought processes in interpreting/measuring how well they understand the knowledge. Much more emphasis on connecting prior knowledge (it which might not be exactly the same but close) to new knowledge – use of analogy to make new concepts seem familiar more quickly. Sort of about identifying patterns which could be useful in problem solving by showing the learner what information they need to access to deal with a new situation that may resemble something they already know. More about how to learn than how to teach.

“Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process” –

I have to say here that this strikes me as the way that knowledge is acquired under any system – even behaviorism. This kind of statement assumes that in a behaviorist model (where it is implied that knowledge is simply branded onto the brain through sheer repetition) the learner doesn’t make any effort to apply their own meaning to the instruction/information being imparted and that they don’t relate it to other things that they have learnt. This process may not be built into the learning experience by the teacher but I would be surprised if it didn’t happen in the learner regardless.

Cognitivism, like behaviourism, emphasises the role that environmental conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback.

Transfer in Cognitivism works in the same way as in Behaviourism – “when a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then transfer has occurred.”
“Specific instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it” – This is just a matter of knowing what you know and why it is useful. It’s about being able to create associations with existing knowledge and new input.
A behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations (knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action.
Well, why didn’t you say so in the first place?

- Tasks requiring a low level of processing (eg basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by… a behavioral outlook (eg stimulus-response, contiguity of feedback/response)

- Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (eg classifications, rule or procedural executions) … have a stronger cognitive emphasis (eg schematic organization, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem solving)

- Tasks demanding high levels of processing (eg heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently best learned with … the constructivist perspective (eg situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, and social negotiation)

For example:

At the university level, learners are either transitioning to adulthood or are already adults. Learning has further metamorphosed to not just making arguments as in secondary school but now considers logic and hypothetical thinking abilities. You need to be aware of these advances to be able to design learning tasks facilitated by ICT that meet the needs of students at this level. There is a lot of independent work, logical reasoning and of course peer tutoring. These are all indicators of effective strategies at the university level. You transcend from the role of facilitator and guide to “a partner” in the process of learning and acquiring new knowledge, skills and abilities. That is why seminars, research and projects become important backdrops for university studies, teaching and learning.

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